Reform Movements (Part X)

Reform Movements (Part X)

The Manav Dharma Sabha was a major Socio-cultural reform established by Mehtaji Durgaram Manchharam on 22nd June, 1844. It proved to be a road-map for all other reforms in Surat and especially in the state of Gujarat. Since the Second decade of the seventeenth century, Surat was under British Governance and witnessed a row of tensions especially after the start of western education and missionaries in the state.

The Organization named Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha proved to be an extremely effective step towards propelling the Parsi socio-religious movements in India, to a large extent. The reform especially came at a time when the Parsi Community was going through a bad phase in society. Even at that time the internal unity of the community was shaken, the reform thus, stood to make a difference and uplift the Parsi Community solving all there social economic problems. Naoroji Furdunji was the founder of the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha. He first edited a journal named Fam-i-Famsbid, during the 1840s and also wrote many articles and books during the 1850s to prove the superiority of Zoroastrianism over Christianity.

Paramahansa Mandali was founded by Dadoba Panderung in 1849 and was one of the most effective socio-cultural organizations that had its influence across the state of Maharashtra. During the phase of conceptualization most of the leaders of Paramahansa Mandali and Manav Dharma Sabha were common and shares similar ideologies.

Faraizi movement was a religious reform movement founded by Haji Shariatullah during the nineteenth century. After seeing degradation of Muslims Haji Shariatullah called up muslims to give up anti-muslim practices and perform their duties as like a true muslim.The movement was also concerned with the British influence upon Muslims and a call for social justice was raised. The movement continued from 1830 to 1857.

Singh Sabha Movement was started in seventies of the 19th century after the Nirankari and Namdhari movements and proved to be the turning point in the history of the Sikhs. The Singh Sabha intended to reinstate Sikhism to its past purity by promoting Punjabi language to propagate knowledge in the form of historical religious books, magazines and journals. The movement was also aided by the missionaries’ activities of Mohammedans and Christians.Sardar Harbans Singh also believed that Singh Sabha had a deeper influence on the Sikh community as the movement touched the roots of Sikhism and shaped the Sikhs attitude for nearly about a century.

Shuddhi Movement was started by Arya Samaj in earlier part of 20th century to bring back the people who transformed their religion to Islam and Christianity from Hinduism.The literal meaning of shuddhi is purification but Arya Samajis didn’t aim at literal meaning rather they meant reconversion by the term. There was vast difference in the scriptural authorities of these religions as Islam and Christianity claimed divine authority for their Koran and Bible respectively while Vedas of Hinduism didn’t put up such claims. Founder of Arya Samaj, Dayananda then strived to give the Vedas the similar degree of supernatural authority.This process of reconverting Hindus from Islam and Christianity was accompanied by a Sanghathan movement.

The Namdhari movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh in 1857 as one of the most influential and transitional socio-religious movements in Punjab. At the initial stage of the movement a set of rituals were modeled after Guru Gobind Singh’s founding of Khalsa. He used a recitation of Gurbani (hymns from the Granth Sahib), Ardas (the Sikh prayer), a flag and baptism for entry into the new community.

The Mughal Chronolgy

Mughal Dynasty

1526 – 1530 Bābur (Tīmūrid ruler of Transoxiana 1497 – 8 and 1500 – 1 ; captured Delhi 1526 ) 1530 – 1540 Humāyūn (son; deposed) Sūrī Dynasty

1540 – 1545 Shīr Shāh Sūr 1545 – 1553 Islām Shāh (son) 1553 Fīrūz IV (son) 1553 – 1555 Muḥammad ‛Ādil (nephew of Shīr Shāh ; deposed, died 1557 ) 1555 Ibrāhīm III (first cousin of Shīr Shāh ; deposed, died 1568 ) 1555 Sikandar III (first cousin; deposed, died 1559 ) Mughal Dynasty

1555 – 1556 Humāyūn (restored) 1556 – 1605 Akbar I, the Great (son) 1605 – 1627 Jahāngīr (son) 1628 – 1658 Shāh Jahān I (son; deposed, died 1666 ) 1658 – 1707 Aurangzīb ‛Ālamgīr I (son) 1707 – 1712 Bahādur Shāh I ( Shāh ‛Ālam I ) (son) 1712 – 1713 Jahāndār Shāh (son) 1713 – 1719 Farrukhsiyar (nephew; deposed, died 1719 ) 1719 Rafī‛al-Darajāt (grandson of Bahādur Shāh I ) 1719 Shāh Jahān II ( Rafī‛al-Daula ) (brother) 1719 – 1748 Muḥammad Shāh (grandson of Bahādur Shāh I ) 1748 – 1754 Aḥmad Shāh (son; deposed, died 1774 ) 1754 – 1759 ‛Ālamgīr II (son of Jahāndār Shāh ) 1759 – 1806 Shāh ‛Ālam II (son) 1806 – 1837 Akbar II (son) 1837 – 1858 Bahādur Shāh II (son; deposed, died 1862 ; direct British rule of India)

The Story of Chittorgarh

The history of Chittor is one of the most stirring chapters in Indian history for it was there that the flower of Rajput chivalry sprang to life and the immense stretch of its sacred walls and ruined palaces relate the saga of innumerable sieges and heroism which has almost become a myth now. Chittorgarh was one of the most fiercely contested seats of power in India. With its formidable fortifications, Bappa Rawal, the legendary founder of the Sisodia dynasty, received Chittor in the middle of the eighth century, as part of the last Solanki princess's dowry. It crowns a seven-mile- long hill, covering 700 acres (280 hectares), with its fortifications, temples, towers and palaces. From the eighth to the 16th century, Bappa Rawal's descendants ruled over an important kingdom called Mewar stretching from Gujarat to Ajmer. But during these eight centuries the seemingly impregnable Chittor was surrounded, overrun, and sacked three times. In 1303 Allauddin khilji, Sultan of Delhi, intrigued by tales of the matchless beauty of Padmini, Rani of Chittor, of her wit and charm, decided to verify this himself. His armies surrounded Chittor, and the sultan sent a message to Rana Rattan Singh, Padmini's husband, to say that he would spare the city if he could meet its famous queen. The compromise finally reached was that the sultan could look upon Padmini's reflection if he came unarmed into the fort. Accordingly, the sultan went up the hill and glimpsed a reflection of the beautiful Padmini standing by a lotus pool. He thanked his host who courteously escorted Allauddin down to the outer gate-where the sultan's men waited in ambush to take the rana hostage. There was consternation in Chittor until Padmini devised a plan. A messenger informed the sultan that the rani would come to him. Dozens of curtained palanquins set off down the hill, each carried by six humble bearers. Once inside the Sultan's camp, four well-armed Rajput warriors leaped out of each palanquin and each lowly palanquin bearer drew a sword.In the ensuing battle, Rana Rattan Singh was rescued-but 7,000 Rajput warriors died. The sultan now attacked Chittor with renewed vigor. Having lost 7,000 of its best warriors, Chittor could not hold out. Surrender was unthinkable. The rani and her entire entourage of women, the wives of generals and soldiers, sent their children into hiding with loyal retainers. They then dressed their wedding fine , slid their farewells, and singing ancient hymns, boldly entered the mahal and performed jauhar. The men, watching with expressionless faces, then donned saffron robes, smeared the holy ashes of their women on their foreheads, flung open the gates of the fort and thundered down the hill into the enemy ranks, to fight to the death.The second sack or shake (sacrifice) of Chittor, by which Rajputs still swear when pledging their word, occurred in 1535, when Sultan Bahadur Shan Of Gujarat attacked the fort.

Rana Kumbha Rana Kumbha (1433-68) was a versatile man a brilliant, poet and musician. He built mewar upto a position of assailable military strength building a chain of thirty forts that girdled the kingdom But, perhaps more important was a patron of the arts to rival Lorenzo de Medici, and he made Chittorgarh a dazzling cultural center whose fame spread right across Hindustan.

Rana Sanga Rana Sanga (reigned 1509-27) was a warrior and a man of great chivalry and honor reign was marked by a series of continual battles, in course of which he is said to have lost one arm and had been crippled in one leg and received eighty-four wounds on his body. The last of his battles was again Mughal invader, Babur, in 1527. Deserted by one ofgenerals, Rana Sanga was wounded in the battle and shortly after.

Maharana Pratap Over the next half-century, most other Rajput rulers allowed themselves to be wooed the Mughals; Mewar alone held out. In 1567 Emperor Akbar decided to teach it a lesson: he attacked Chittorgarh razed it to the ground. Five years later Maharana Pratap (reigned 1572-97) came to rule Mewar - a king without a capital. He continued to defy Akbar, and in 1576, confronted the imperial armies at Haldighati. The battle ended in a stalemate and Maharana Pratap and his followers withdrew to the craggy hills of Mewar, from where they continued to harrass the Mughals through guerilla warfare for the next twenty years. Maharana Pratap made his descendants vow that they would not sleep on beds, nor live in palaces, nor eat off metal utensils, until Chittorgarh had been regained.In fact, right into the 20th century the maharanas of Mewar continued to place a leaf platter under their regular utensils and a reed mat under their beds in symbolic continuance of this vow.

Rani Padmini In 1303 Allauddin khilji, Sultan of Delhi, intrigued by tales of the matchless beauty of Padmini, Rani of Chittor, of her wit and charm, decided to verify this himself. His armies surrounded Chittor, and the sultan sent a message to Rana Rattan Singh, Padmini's husband, to say that he would spare the city if he could meet its famous queen. The compromise finally reached was that the sultan could look upon Padmini's reflection if he came unarmed into the fort. Accordingly, the sultan went up the hill and glimpsed a reflection of the beautiful Padmini standing by a lotus pool. He thanked his host who courteously escorted Allauddin down to the outer gate- where the sultan's men waited in ambush to take the rana hostage.   There was consternation in Chittor until Padmini devised a plan. A messenger informed the sultan that the rani would come to him. Sultan's camp, four well-armed Rajput warriors leaped out of each palanquin and each lowly palanquin bearer drew a sword.In the ensuing battle, Rana Rattan Singh was rescued-but 7,000 Rajput warriors died. The sultan now attacked Chittor with renewed vigor. Having lost 7,000 of its best warriors, Chittor could not hold out. Surrender was unthinkable. The rani and her entire entourage of women, the wives of generals and soldiers, sent their children into hiding with loyal retainers. They then dressed their wedding fine , slid their farewells, and singing ancient hymns, boldly entered the mahal and performed jauhar.

Chittorgarh And Jainism Chittorgarh is ancient center of Jain tradition. Here are few facts about Chittor: Chittor is adjacent to the ancient city of Madhyamika. The Jain inscriptions at Mathura from the Kushana period (1-3rd cent) mention a "Majjhimilla" branch of the "Kottiya" gana, indicating that it was a major Jain center. The famous Acharya Haribhadra Suri (6th cent) was born in Chittor and wrote "Dhurtopakhyana" there. There was a scholar Elacharya at Chittor from whom Vira-senacharya (9th cent) learned the ancient Shat-khandagama and Kashayapahuda. Vira-senacharya later the famous "Dhavala" and "Jayadhavala" on the basis of these books. Chittor was the residence of Jinavallabha who propagated the Vidhimarga in the 12th cent. In the 15-17th century, it was the seat of a Bhattaraka.

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The Buddhist Councils

First Buddhist Council   The First Council, as it is known to Buddhist history, took place at Rajgir, the capital of the Magadha kingdom. The Buddha's most important disciples were asked to recite his teachings from memory. The first to recite was Ananda, the Buddha's cousin, attendant and constant companion for more than 30 years. Demonstrating impressive powers of memorization, he recited not only everything he had heard, but the place in which each discourse was given. Other monks were then asked to confirm Ananda's recollection. It was also at this council that the Buddha's teachings were divided into three categories or "baskets" (pitaka): discourses, discipline and higher knowledge. The Tripitaka that was formed at this meeting is the same canon used by Buddhists today.	Held soon after the death of the Buddha around 400 BCE Presided by monk Mahakasyapa Held by Magadha king Ajatasatru in Rajagriha Objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (suttas) and monastic rules (Vinaya) According to some sources, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, or its matika, was also included. Also the Sangha made the unanimous decision to keep all the rules of the Vinaya, even the lesser and minor rules. Tradition holds that the Council was held in a hall erected by Ajatasattu outside the Sattaparnaguha Cave Detailed accounts of the council can be found in the Khandhaka sections of the canonical Vinayas. According to this record the incident which prompted the Elder Mahakassapa to call this meeting was his hearing a disparaging remark about the strict rule of life for monks. The monk Subhadda, who had ordained late in life, upon hearing that the Buddha had expired, voiced his resentment at having to abide by all the rules for monks laid down by the Buddha. Many monks lamented the passing of the Buddha and were deeply grieved but Subhadda spoke up to show happiness and relief that Buddha was gone.
Second   Buddhist Council The group who stayed called themselves the Elders (Thera in Pali). They felt they were in keeping with the original spirit of the Buddha's teachings. The other group, the Great Community (Mahasanghika in Sanskrit), interpreted Buddha's teachings more liberally, but in a way that they felt was more true to his intentions. These two groups would eventually evolve into Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.	(4th century BCE) Held about 100 years after the Buddha’s demise Held at Vaisali under the presidentship of Sabakami, convened by King Kalasoka Objective was to settle a debate on certain practices of Buddhist monks, esp. in western India Although it is unclear exactly what happened at this council, we do know that it resulted in a split in the Buddhist community. A large group of monks were either expelled or left by choice because they did not agree with the other group's interpretations of the Buddha's teachings. Within 200 years of the Buddha's death, there were 18 schools of Buddhism in India. This is perhaps not surprising, given that the Buddha taught in a slightly different way for each situation, was averse to setting down doctrine and never wrote anything himself. Moreover, Buddhism had now spread to places with different languages and customs, and therefore different perspectives on the dharma.
Third   Buddhist Council The reason for convening the Third Buddhist Council is reported to have been to rid the Sangha of corruption and bogus monks who held heretical views.   Disputes on points of doctrine lead to further schisms, spawning the Sarvastivadin and Vibhajjavadin sects. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is recited at the Council, along with additional sections of the Khuddaka Nikaya. The modern Pali Tipitaka is now essentially complete, although some scholars have suggested that at least two parts of the extant Canon — the Parivara in the Vinaya, and the Apadana in the Sutta — may date from a later period.	(250 BCE) Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka Chief monk was Mogaliputta Tissa Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions Origin of Theravada school
Fourth   Buddhist Council Fourth Buddhist Council is the name of two separate Buddhist council meetings. The first one was held in the 1st century BC, in Sri Lanka. In this fourth Buddhist council the Theravadin Pali Canon was for the first time committed to writing, on palm leaves. The second one was held by the Sarvastivada school, in Kashmir around the 1st century AD.	(1st century BCE or CE) Possibly held under Theravada school in Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) in the 1st century BCE Committed the Pali Canon to writing Another possibly held under Saravastivada tradition, convened by Kanishka around 100 CE in Kashmir under the leadership of monk Vasumitra Kanishka’s council translated Abhidharna texts from Prakrit to Sanskrit

 

Fifth   Buddhist Council	·         The Fifth Buddhist council  took place in Mandalay, Burma (Myanmar) in 1871 AD in the reign of King Mindon. ·          The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha according to the Theravada Pali Canon and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted or dropped. . ·         It was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable Mahathera Sumangalasami in the company of 2,400 monks. ·         Their joint Dhamma recitation lasted five months.
Sixth   Buddhist Council	·         The Sixth Buddhist Council was a general council of Theravada Buddhism, held in a specially built cave and pagoda complex at Kaba Aye Pagoda in Yangon, Burma. ·          The council was attended by 2,500 monastics from eight Theravada Buddhist countries. ·         The Council lasted from Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956, its completion coinciding with the traditional 2,500th anniversary the Buddha's Parinibbāna. In the tradition of past Buddhist councils, a major purpose of the Sixth Council was to preserve the Buddha's teachings and practices as understood in the Theravada tradition. ·         Over the two-year period, monks (sangīti-kāraka) from different countries recited from their existing redaction of the Pali Canon and the associated post-canonical literature. ·          As a result, the Council synthesized a new redaction of the Pali texts ultimately transcribed into several native scripts.

  

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Important Facts : Gupta and Sangam Age

Important Facts : Gupta and Sangam Age

# Guptas belonged to Dharana gotra
# Pushyavarman, a Kamprupa ruler placed as the ruler of North eastern part of the empire
# The poetic work"Krishna Charitam" is supposed to have been written by Samudragupta and for his poetic brilliance he got the title"Kaviraja"
# Some of the famous inscriptions of Kumaragupta were Bilsad, Damodarpur,Karmandaka ,Mandasore
# The Eran insciption(510 AD)is the first reference to Sati in India
# Yashodharman of Malwa defeated Mihirkula who then retreated to Kashmir and there he embraced Shaivism
# Apart from Chandragupta II Skandagupta also took the title Vikramaditya
# Samudragupta and Skandagupta both performed ashwamedha yajna
# Rulers after Skandagupta Purugupta-Buddhagupta-Vanyagupta-Bhanugupta-Narasimhagupta-KumaraguptaII-Vishnugupta
# Aprahata-Forest land
# Nivi Dharma-Land endowment in perpetuity
# Talavataka was village accountant
# According to Visakhadutta Vasana the saka ruler killed Ramagupta
# Allhabad pillar inscription is the first epigraphic evidence of zero
# The term Bhukti first apeared in the Bhojdeva inscription of Gwalior
# Tadaga was a reservoir
# Audrangika collected the King's share in kind
# Nivartana, Dronavapa, Kulavapa were all units of measurement
# Total 42 inscriptions of this age are found with maximum belonging to Kumaragupta
# The great boar image was installed at the gate of Udaygiri
# Kumaragupta is said to have embraced Buddhism towards the end of his reign
# Samudragupta sent an embassy to China in 361 AD and Skandagupta sent an embassy to China
# Mahapratihara was the palace guard
# Gadhiya was a series of coins during this period
# Fields owned by cultivators themselves were known as Kutumba Kshetra
# Dandin wrote Dasakumaracharita
# Bhattin wrote Ravanabadha
# According to T'sing Srigupta built a temple for the chinese pilgrims at Mrigashikhavahana
# Toramana was converted to jainism
# Earliest evidence of temple prostitution in India, Ramgarh inscription
# Narada smriti talks about 15 kinds of slaves
# Drangik-Official for collection of custom duties
# Yajnavalka Smriti was the official lawbook of the Guptas
# Kulika-Guild of artisans
# Karaikal , the greatest Chola ruler transferred the capital to Kaveripattinam and he converted the Oliyar community from nomadic to settled life.He also fought a battle at Reuni
# Perunarkilli,the Chola ruler was the only Chola king to perform Rajsuya yajna
# Nedunjelian, the Pandya ruler was the hero of Silpapadikaram and he defeated Chola and Chera rulers in the battle of Talaiyangam
# Ahom was the story of love whereas Puram was the story of battles
# Thirunavukkarasu coined the term Sangam
# Thirukural, written by Thiruvaluvar is known as the Bible of the Tamil land and also the 5th Veda
# Senguttuvan, the Red Chera started Pattini cult was known as Kodal Pirakottiyama and he destroyed the efficacy of sea as a refuge
# Tolakappiyam was a book on grammer
# Kadimaram or kavalaram was the worship of tutelary tree
# Perundevanar translated Mahabharata into Tamil
# Tamil is the oldest Dravidian language
# Tolakappiyam is the earliest Tamil literary work extant today
# Sati or Tippaidal was common
# Kuppidu-Unit of measurement
# Nalikal-Unit of time
# Kalam-Unit of grain
# Kanam-Gold
# Velli-Silver
# Velvi-yajna
# Kadamai-King's customary tax
# Variyam-Land yielding tax
# Variyar-Tax collecting official
# Alakkus or Ulakku- Revenue measurement
# Pattinapattu-A work on Kaveripattanam
# Kalabhras rose against the Brahmins and ended the Sangam period
# Tirumal was the name of Vishnu
# Kalanju was a type of gold coin
# Korkai was known as Kolchi and Mahabalipuram as Melange
# Malayalam is the latest Dravidian language
# Spy was known as Orrayiar
# Nadukkal or virakkal was hero stone
# Alumbi Vel was revenue accountant
# Bhasa's Swapnovasavdutta was the earliest Sanskrit drama
# Earliest evidence of Vishti was in Bhagvata Purana
# Ritusamhara was the earliest work of Kalidasa
# Kumardasa wrote Janakiharana
# Chronlogical order of some Puranas: Manu-Brihaspati-Narada-Katyana-Vayu-Devala
# Auranasthanika-Officers in charge of wool market during the Gupta period
# Navaniketan-a book on medicine
# Vatsvatta wrote the famous Mandasore inscription of Kumargupta
# Maniyar Math was a circular temple only one of its kind
# Bhairavi wrote Kiratarjuniyam
# Yajnavalkya Smriti was the official lawbook of the Gupta